brewers to convert their roofs to tile. By 1588 when a new brewery was con
structed it got a tile roof immediately15. Technical innovation in Zeeland
brewing seems to have been rare with producers tending to follow the lead of
their larger competitors in Holland.
One sign of the success in the fifteenth century of Zeeland brewing was
some level of exports to England. Already in the early fourteenth century
England was a market for beer not just from Holland but also from Zeeland.
That did not stop the flow of shipments in the other direction. English ship
pers exported beer to Zeeland and to Flanders as well as Holland, that
throughout the fourteenth century. English exports were of ale, made with no
hops. By around 1380 Holland and Zeeland beer from the two counties was a
common cargo for England16. Already existing commercial ties between Zee-
land with England made the province a logical avenue through which Low
Countries beer could be shipped and there are indications that the flow in
creased in the fifteenth century.
There was a dramatic increase in beer production in late fourteenth and
early fifteenth century Holland. The levels of output reached were far in ex
cess of local needs so a significant share was for export and among the mar
kets for the greater output was Zeeland. The rise in production was due not to
each brewery making more beer but to the rise in the number of breweries.
Al Gouda between 1367 and 1370 at least 85 different individuals were
charged with violations of brewing bylaws so there were undoubtedly more
than 85 breweries. Ail of them, no matter how much the figure would grow
in the coming years, were small firms. Records from 1370 suggest an annual
level of production at Gouda of some 5,000 brews or already probably some
thing over 7,000,000 litres. From around 1400 Delft produced typically about
130,000 barrels of beer a year, probably more than 15,000,000 litres. Haar
lem in the 1430s produced about 5.000 brews annually, which put the num
ber of brewers at around 100'\ Brewing at Haarlem was principally an export
industry with about 55% of production in the 1430s sent out of the town. The
largest markets were in Friesland, Overijssel and Zeeland. At around the
same time there were dealings over beer between people in Middelburg and
people in Haarlem so almost certainly Haarlem beer made its way to the
15. ZA, Verz. handschr. inv.nr. 881a: 1455. 1455, 1525. 1551. 1554. 1588, 1590, 1601. 1603.
16. G. van der Feijst, Geschiedenis van Schiedam (Schiedam 1975) 24: J.F. Niermeyer (cd.). Bron
nen voor de economische geschiedenis van hei Beneden-Maasgebied vol.l, 1104-1399, Rijks
Geschiedkundige Publicatiën, Grote serie 127 (The Hague 1968) nr. 611; H.J. Smit (ed.). Bronnen tol
de geschiedenis van den handel met Engeland. Schotland en Ierland. IJ50-I585, 2 vol.. Rijks
Geschiedkundige Publicatiën. Grote serie 65. 66. 86, 91 (The Hague 1928, 1942, 1950) vol.l. nrs.
148. 162. 208, 252 and 161: vol.2. nrs. 363-365. 372, 379. 486. 489 and 557; Unger, Bronnenvol.3.
nrs. 15,32, 33 and 45.
17. A. van der Poest Clement, 'De Bierbrouwerijen van Gouda in middeleeuwen en 16e eeuw'. In
complete and unpublished doctoral dissertation, n.d., GAG. 204; D.E.H. de Boer. Graaf en grafiek.
Sociale en economische ontwikkelingen in het middeleeuwse 'Noordholland' tussen ±1345 en ±1415
(Leiden 1978) 278, 283-284; Van Loencn, Haarlemse brouwindustrie21. 55, 59-62; Pinkse, Het
Goudse kuitbier. 108; J. Schouten. Gouda vroeger en nu (Bussum 1969) 67.
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