WINTER OPERATIONS
9
substantially, and would continue this process during the war. Tactical doctrine,
however, lagged: the Dutch would not discard traditional group mêlée and board
ing tactics and adopt British linear tactics until after the defeat at Lowestoft in June
1665. Because the weapons and tactics were still relatively new, neither side was
certain of strategy.
Ships of below 40 guns, cheaper to build and maintain, were required in numbers
for commerce-raiding and trade defence; they might also be used for scouting,
patrols, and supporting the capital ships in battle. General utility vessels, these
smaller ships can best be described as cruisers' or 'frigates'.7 Together, these two
classes of major warship formed the vast bulk of modern fleets.
Nonetheless, the British generally had larger and more heavily armed ships: they
classed their ships in 'rates' according to their size - causing considerable overlap
in armament (Table 1). The two largest British rates were three-deckers; the Dutch
did not build such ships until the late seventeenth century.
8
Table 1. British and Dutch warship rate classification and armament (numbers of guns)
British
Dutch
(programme)
(Amsterdam)
Rate
Apr 1665
1666
Charter
Dec 1664
Nov 1665
First
78-100
80-102
First
66
60-80
Second
56-76
56-92
Second
56
40-48
Third
52-58
56-70
Third
44-46
28-30
Fourth
36-54
38-62
Fifth
20-32
20-38
Sixth
12-14
4-20
Besides the major warships, fireships were still integral to naval warfare at this time
as expendable 'one-shot' weapons. These were obsolete small warships or bought
merchantmen, loaded with combustibles - with terrifying effect on wooden ships
preserved with pitch and tar and loaded with gunpowder. The last class of warships
were fast utility minor craft - despatch yachts or avisos - for communications,
reconnaissance, and the transport of personnel and small amounts of supplies.
Their functions might also be performed by small and fast merchant craft, bought
or hired. Major resupply of a fleet away from port had to be done by hired auxili
ary merchant ships: there was no 'fleet train' of dedicated naval supply ships at this
time.
In peacetime the bulk of a permanent navy of purpose-built warships was not
required: usually the only peacetime requirement was for a small number of lighter
warships to escort merchant convoys. The unused ships were 'laid up' in port
removable equipment was stripped to reduce unnecessary wear and ease main
tenance costs: sails, rigging, masts, spars, guns and ammunition were stored in
facilities ashore. In time of war this equipment had to be reinstalled the ships
'fitted out' and prepared for sea. Even without battle, wear and damage due to
weather required 'refit' in port. In addition, ships that had been at sea for a few
months would accumulate marine growths on their hulls; this affected sailing per-
